DICTIONARY OF RUNNING & FITNESS RELATED TERMS

Amateur Athletic Federation (AAF) – Now known as the LA84 Foundation (as of June 2007), is a nonprofit institution created by the Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee to manage Southern California’s endowment from the 1984 Olympic Games. The LA84 Foundation’s mission is to promote and expand youth sports opportunities in Southern California and to increase knowledge of sport and its impact on people’s lives. The LA84 Foundation has initiated programs to meet the youth sports needs of Southern California and to create models that can be applied elsewhere. These include the LA84 Foundation Coaching Education Program (Sportcal 2007).

Amateur Athletic Union (AAU)- The Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) was founded in 1888 by William Buckingham Curtis to establish standards and uniformity in amateur sport. During its early years the AAU served as a leader in international sport representing the United States in the international sports federations. The AAU worked closely with the Olympic movement to prepare athletes for the Olympic Games. After the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 broke up the AAU’s responsibility as the national Olympic sports governing body, the AAU focused on providing sports programs for all participants of all ages beginning at the local and regional levels. The philosophy of the AAU is “Sports for All, Forever.” The AAU is divided into 56 distinct Districts, which annually sanction 34 sports programs, 250 national championships, and over 30,000 age division events. The AAU events have over 500,000 participants and over 50,000 volunteers (source: Wikipedia).

Acceleration – The rate of speed increase over time, is the aspect of speed that determines at what point top speed will be reached (USATF Coaching Education-Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Acetylcholine (ACh) – A chemical neurotransmitter in the brain and peripheral nervous system (Martini/Nath 2009).

Acetyl-CoA – An aceytal group bound to coenzyme A, a participant in the anabolic and catabolic pathways for carbohydrates, lipids, and many amino acids. (Martini/Nath 2009).

Achilles Tendon – The calcaneal tendon, the large tendon that inserts on the calcaneus; tension on this tendon produces extension (plantar flexion) of the foot (Martini/Nath 2009).

Achilles Tendonitis – An inflammation causing painful swelling or thickening of the Achilles tendon or its surrounding sheath (fascia).

Actin – The protein component of microfilaments that forms thin filaments in skeletal muscles and produces contractions of all muscles through interaction with thick (myosin) filaments, relating to sliding filament theory (Martini/Nath 2009).

Adaptation – The adjustment of an organism to its environment, or the process by which it enhances such fitness. These relatively stable changes caused by a series of training sessions are adaptations (USATF Coaching Education-Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)– A compound consisting of adenosine with two phosphate groups attached (Martini/Nath 2009). Results when a phosphate group is removed from adenosine triphosphate (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Adenosine Monophosphate (AMP)- A nucleotide consisting of adenine with a single phosphate group attached, also called adenosine phosphate (Martini/Nath 2009). Results when two phosphate groups are removed from adenosine triphosphate (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) – A high-energy compound consisting of adenosine with three phosphate groups attached; the third phosphate group is attached by a high-energy bond (Martini/Nath 2009). It’s a universal energy-carrying molecule manufactured in all living cells as a means of capturing and storing energy (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Afferent – Toward a center or centerline.

Aid Station – Locations strategically situated along a race route (e.g. longer endurance distance races/events) to provide mainly for hydration of the participants, usually consisting of water and/or an electrolyte beverage. In ultra endurance events food may also be provided to facilitate glyocogen replenishment, Minor medical and first aid assistance is also often provided for during these ultra distance events.

Aerobic – Aerobic literally means “with oxygen”, and refers to the use of oxygen in a muscles’ energy-generating process. In physical exercise, aerobic exercise is complementary to anaerobic exercise. Aerobic exercise includes any type of exercise, typically those performed at moderate levels of intensity for extended periods of time, that maintains an increased heart rate. There are various types of aerobic exercise. In general, aerobic exercise is one performed at a moderately high level of intensity over a long period of time. In such exercise, oxygen is used to metabolize glucose and fats in order to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the basic energy carrier for all cells. Initially, during aerobic exercise, glycogen is broken down to produce glucose, but in its absence, fat metabolism is initiated instead. The latter is a slow process, and is accompanied by a decline in performance level. The switch to fat as fuel is a major cause of what marathon runners call “hitting the wall.”(source: Science Daily)

Aerobic Energy System (Oxidative System) – This energy system utilizes proteins, fats and carbohydrates (glycogen) for re-synthesizing large amounts of ATP without simultaneously generating limiting by-products. This energy system is particularly suited for manufacturing ATP during prolonged, endurance type activities (USATF Coaching Education-Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000). The oxidative metabolism of blood glucose and muscle glycogen begins with glycolysis. When oxygen is present in sufficient quantities, the end product of glycolysis, pyruvate, is not converted to lactate but is transported to the mitochondria, where it is taken up and enters the Krebs cycle. Following the onset of activity, as intensity increases, there is a shift in substrate preference from fats to carbohydrates. During high-intensity aerobic exercise, almost 100% of the energy is derived from carbohydrates if an adequate supply is available. However, during prolonged, submaximal, steady-state work, there is a gradual shift from carbohydrates back to fats and proteins as energy substrates. (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Aerobic Glycolosis (slow glycolosis) – When, during the process of glycolosis, pyruvate is shuttled into the mitochondria to undergo the Krebs cycle, the ATP resynthesis rate is slower, but can occur for a longer duration if the intensity is low enough (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Aerobic metabolism – The complete breakdown of organic substrates into carbon dioxide and water, via pyruvic acid; a process that yields large amounts of ATP but requires mitochondria and oxygen (Martini/Nath 2009).

Agonist – A muscle that is shortening to perform a concentric action (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Alternations – A training method promoted by elite coach Renato Canova. Alternations are characterized as a continuous run where segments of slightly faster running at a specified pace are inserted, alternating with periods of slightly slower running at a recovery pace (Magness 2014) .

Anabolism – The synthesis of complex organic compounds from simpler precursors (Martini/Nath 2009).

Anaerobic – Anaerobic means “without” oxygen, and refers to living, active, occurring, or existing in the absence of free oxygen. Exercises that are anaerobic in nature, such as weight lifting or sprinting, produce short-term energy through metabolic processes without the need for oxygen. Anaerobic metabolism produces pyruvate which can be utilized via two different paths: 1) converted into acetyl-CoA via the enzyme Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (PDH); or 2) converted into lactate via the enzyme Lactate Dehydrogenize (LDH).

Anaerobic (Phosphagen) Energy System – Also called the anaerobic energy system or sometimes as the anaerobic-alactic energy System, which utilizes an energy-rich compound present in the muscle cell called creatine phosphate (CP). This compound is used for the immediate re-synthesis of ATP following very high intensity exercise without the formation of waste products (i.e. alactic). The resynthesis of ATP from CP continues until all the creatine phosphate stores are significantly reduced (<50% production), which equates to about less than 10 seconds (USATF Coaching Education-Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Anaerobic–Alactic Energy System – Please see Anaerobic (Phosphagen) Energy System.

Anaerobic glycolysis (fast glycolysis)– The process by which glucose or glycogen is broken down to pyruvate to provide high-energy phosphates. At the same time, there is a reduction of co-enzyme NAD, which functions as a hydrogen acceptor (i.e. an electron carrier) and forms NADH2. Pyruvate is reduced by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) by releasing the hydrogen to NADH2 to form lactate. It should be noted that lactate is not necessary for the delivery of energy, but serves as a storehouse for the hydrogen ion, and thereby keeps the reaction going. It is the accumulation of these hydrogen ions that become the limiting factor causing fatigue under anaerobic conditions (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Anaerobic Lactate (Glycolytic) System – After 8-10 seconds of high intensity training, CP stores are depleted and the body must look for another source of ATP to maintain that level of intensity, in which case the working muscles must then resort to stored glucose for ATP by using a process called the “Anaerobic Lactate System”. When challenged, the lactate (glycolytic) system, breaks down glucose or glycogen anaerobically, producing energy, plus lactate and hydrogen ions. Eventually, when the demand for energy exceeds the body’s ability to produce energy with oxygen, the muscle will become acidic from the accumulation of the hydrogen ions. It is the presence of the hydrogen ions, not lactate that makes the muscle acidic, which will eventually halt muscle (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Anaerobic Threshold – The breakpoint at which the aerobic system can no longer fully supply the energy needed to sustain a given effort or pace, at which time there is a reliance on the anaerobic system to aid the aerobic system in supplying the required energy needs to make up the deficit (USATF Coaching Curriculum)

Anemia – The condition marked by a reduction in the hematocrit, the hemoglobin content of the blood, or both (Martini/Nath 2009).

Annual Plan – Length of a training period that usually embodies 1-3 macrocycles (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000). Often correlated within the context of a one-year timeframe.

Antagonist – A muscle, typically anatomically opposite to the agonist, that can stop or slow down a muscle action caused by an agonist muscle (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Articular – That which pertains to a skeletal joint (Martini/Nath 2009).

Articular capsule – The dense collagen fiber sleeve that surrounds a joint and provides protection and stabilization (Martini/Nath 2009).

Articular cartilage – The cartilage pad that covers the surface of the bone inside a joint cavity (Martini/Nath 2009).

Date Race Pace (DP) – Current race pace (i.e. the pace you are capable of running in a race if you ran today).

Dehydration – A reduction in the water content of the body that threatens homeostasis (Martini/Nath 2009).

Density – The number of training units per unit of time (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000). Also can refer to the defined rest pause or recovery between work bouts within a session, e.g. between intervals or repeats (Martin/Coe 1997)

Dermatitis – An inflammation of the skin (Martini/Nath 2009).

Dermis – The connective tissue layer beneath the epidermis of the skin (Martini/Nath 2009).

Detraining – When inactivity, rather than proper recovery follows exercise, an athlete begins to lose training adaptations, which is known as detraining. Aerobic endurance training adaptations are particularly sensitive to periods of inactivity because of their enzymatic basis. When detraining occurs, the individual’s physiological function reverts to a normal, untrained state (Baechle/ Earle 2008).

Diaphragm – Any muscular partition; the respiratory muscle that separates the thoracic cavity the abdominopelvic cavity (Martini/Nath 2009).

Diuresis – Fluid loss at the kidneys; the production of unusually large volumes of urine (Martini/Nath 2009).

Dopamine – An important neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (Martini/Nath 2009).

Dorsal – Toward the back, posterior (Martini/Nath 2009).

Dorsiflexion – Sagittal-plane motion at foot joints (ankle, metatarsophalangeal and interphalangeal joints) during which plantar tissues move away from the support surface, and the dorsum of foot approaches the anterior aspect of lower leg (i.e. flexing the foot/toes upward toward the front of the shin).

Double Periodization – An annual plan with to macrocycles and two target/peaks (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Duration – Measure of length of time an exercise session lasts.

Dynamic stretching – A type of stretching that utilizes speed of movement and is specific to a sport or movement pattern (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Dyspnea – Shortness of breath.

Easy Run – Submaximal intensity run, usually at conversational pace and moderate duration, primarily used to allow for recovery after a quality workout.

Eccentric action – Action that occurs when a muscle cannot develop sufficient tension and is overcome by an external load, and thus progressively lengthens (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Edema – The escape of fluid into the surrounding tissues, resulting in swelling (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Electron Transport Chain (ETC) – A series of oxidative reactions that rephosphorylate ADP to ATP (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Electron Transport System (ETS) – The cytochrome system responsible for most of the energy production in cells; a complex bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane (Martini/Nath 2009).

Elasticity – the ability of a muscle fiber to to return to original resting length after a passive stretch (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Elastin – Connective tissue fibers that stretch and recoil, providing elasticity to connective tissues (Martini/Nath 2009).

Electrolytes – Electrolytes affect the amount of water in your body, the acidity of your blood (pH), your muscle function, and other important processes. Electrolytes are lost when you sweat and are replaced by drinking fluids that contain electrolytes. Water does not contain electrolytes. Electrolytes can be acids, bases, and salts. Common electrolytes include:

Calcium

Chloride

Magnesium

Phosphorous

Potassium

Sodium

Endorphins – Neuromodulators, produced in the CNS, that inhibit activity along pain pathways (Martini/Nath 2009).

Endurance – The capacity to maintain a degree of force or speed in the presence of fatigue (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Enzyme – A protein that catalyzes a specific biochemical reaction (Martini/Nath 2009).

Epimysium – The connective tissue encasing the entire muscle body (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Erythrocyte – A red blood cell; has no nucleus and contains large quantities of hemoglobin (Martini/Nath 2009).

Essential amino acids – Amino acids that cannot be synthesized in the body and must be obtained from the diet (Martini/Nath 2009).

Essential fatty acids – Fatty acids that cannot be synthesized in the body and must be obtained from the diet (Martini/Nath 2009).

Eversion – A turning outward (Martini/Nath 2009).

Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) – The oxygen uptake above resting values used to restore the body to the pre-exercise condition; also termed “oxygen debt” (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Gait Cycle – Refers to the kinematic action of running consisting of two main phases: the support phase and the recovery phase. Beginning with the support phase, it consists of three distinct periods: footstrike, midsupport, and takeoff; which then transitions into the recovery phase consisting of three more periods: follow-through, forward swing, and foot descent (Martin/Coe 1997).

General Training – General exercises that usually doesn’t contain specific elements of the technical or metabolic demands of the competition; also referred to as foundation or base training (USATF Coaching Education-Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Gluconeogenesis – The formation of glucose from lactate and non-carbohydrate sources (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Goal Race Pace (GP) – The pace you want to run in a race.

GPS – Global Positioning System

Glycogen – A multi-branched polysaccharide that serves as the principal storage form for glucose in the body. Moreover, the glucose from glycogen is readily mobilized and is therefore a good source of energy for sudden, strenuous activity. (Source: National Center for Biotechnology Information)

Glucose – A simple six-carbon sugar (monosacharide), and important source of carbohydrate fuel.

Glycogenolysis – The breakdown of glycogen (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Glycolysis – The breakdown of carbohydrates (either glycogen stored in the muscles or glucose delivered in the blood) to produce ATP (Earle/Baechle 2004). A metabolic process that converts glucose into energy. The process consists of a series of 10 different chemical reactions that must occur to break down glucose (our body’s most important source of carbohydrate fuel) into pyruvic acid, which releases energy in the form of ATP molecules which can then be used by the bodies muscles to perform work (approx. 1-3 minutes). The real importance of glycolysis to the endurance athlete is that it kick starts the Krebs Cycle which provides for the bulk of the energy requirements for sustained running (i.e. beyond 3 minutes). (Source: Anderson, Owen. Running Science)

Goal repetitions – The number of repetitions a runner is assigned to perform in a specific work task and/or session.

Goal setting – A strategy for increasing the level of participation or causing a behavioral change (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Ground Contact Time (GCT) – The amount of time that the foot is in contact with the ground surface during the running gait cycle, usually measured in milliseconds.

IAAF – The acronym for the International Association of Athletics Federations. On July 17th, 1912 in Stockholm, Sweden, following the closing ceremony of the Olympic Games in the Swedish capital, the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) was founded as the world governing body for the sport of track and field Athletics. During the ten decades that followed Athletics underwent many changes which reflected the political and socio-economic evolution of the wider world. Even the IAAF’s name changed, in 2001 becoming the ‘International Association of Athletics Federations’ to reflect the growth of a professional sporting world which did not exist in 1912. The IAAF was founded to fulfill the need for a world governing authority, for a competition program, for standardized technical equipment and for a list of official World records. All of these requirements remain today. The IAAF has been headquartered in the Principality of Monaco since 1993.

Illiotibial Band (ITB) – Often referred to as the IT band, is a tendon (thickened strip of fascia) that extends from the hip across the outside of the knee and inserts into the tibia (large shin bone) just below the line of the knee joint (Noakes 2003).

IT Band Syndrome – Is a common injury among runners. Often characterized by severe pain, well localized over the outside of the knee, directly over the lateral femoral condyle. The pain is absent at rest and only presents during exercise Noakes 2003).

Innervation – Stimulation of a muscle cell by a motor nerve (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Inflammation – A non-specific defense mechanism that operates at the tissue level; characterized by swelling, redness, warmth, pain, and some loss of function (Martini/Nath 2009).

Intensity – The demand or difficulty of an exercise session that determines exercise duration and training frequency (Earle/Baechle 2004). The strength of the stimulus or concentration of work per unit of time; the quality of effort (USATF Coaching Education-Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Intermittent exercise – Several shorter bouts of exercise interspersed with rest periods (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Isokinetic – Referring to dynamic muscle activity in which a joint moves through a range of motion at a constant velocity (Earle/Baechle 2004).

In and Outs –

Intensity (Training Intensity)– Identifies the quality of the effort as measured by speed/pace or duration (Martin/Coe 1997).

Interval Training (Aerobic Intervals) – Interval work bouts that are manipulated in such a way as to encourage faster speeds, while producing an aerobic metabolic stress adaptation. Generally characterized by short distances, short rest periods between intervals, with long rest periods between sets, and an overall low total volume (Magness 2014).

Karvonen Formula – A method to determine exercise heart rate that takes into consideration a client’s age and resting heart rate (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Ketosis – Condition resulting from high levels of ketones in the bloodstream caused by the incomplete breakdown of fatty acids (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Krebs Cycle – A series of reactions that continues the oxidation of glucose, glycogen, or pyruvate to create ATP (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Krebs Cycle – A series of energy creating reactions involving the breakdown of pyruvic acid, which is a byproduct created during the metabolic process of glycolysis. The Krebs cycle also metabolizes fats into an energy source. Overall, the Krebs cycle (also known as the Electron Transport Chain or ETC) can furnish more than 90% of the energy required to run in a sustained steady-state manner. (Source: Anderson, Owen. Running Science)

Kick – A term generally used to denote a sprint, sudden acceleration, or sustained pickup in pace at the very end of a running race near the finish. Also referred to as the “end spurt phenomenon”, which is the interplay between anaerobic reserve, psychological drive/reward, and a loosening of the biofeedback safety mechanism from the brain (source: Magness, Steve, The Science of Running).

Kilometer – Representing 1,000 meters, in the metric system of measurement for length/distance. 1,000 meters is equivalent to approximately 0.62 miles or approximately 3,280.8 feet.

Main Competition Phase – The phase of training dedicated to the optimum achievement in competition (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Maintenance Workout – A workout designed to “maintain” a performance component once it has been satisfactorily built, with the premise being that once a component has been built, it requires less effort/work to maintain it. These type workouts are characterized by a smaller stimulus performed on an expanded frequency (e.g. approx. every 2-weeks)(Magness 2014).

Marathon – Technically, it is 42.195 kilometers (42,195 meters), and is the metric moniker for the “marathon” distance, which equates to approx. 26 miles and 385 yards using the english measurement system. It is the longest running race on the Olympic program. A road race, at major events it has historically finished inside the main stadium, although there have been city centre finishes at several recent international championships (Source: IAAF).

Historically, the event is named after the legendary 26-mile run made by a Greek soldier called Philippedes (also known as Pheidippides) from the scene of the battle of Marathon to Athens, where he announced the defeat of the invading Persians. His mission completed, he promptly died of exhaustion after having apparently also run 150 miles back from Sparta the day before. The organizers of the first modern Olympic Games, held in Athens in 1896, devised the marathon race over 40km to celebrate the achievements of Ancient Greece. The distance then was extended to the imperial measurement of 26 miles at the 1908 Olympics Games in London, and increased another 385 yards when the starting line was pulled back so it could be seen by the children in the Royal Nursery at Windsor and still finish in front of Queen Alexandra at the White City Stadium in west London. This distance was standardized at 26 miles 385 yards (42.195km) in 1921. The current women’s World Record is held by Paula Radcliffe of Great Britain with a time of 2:15.25 set on April 13, 2003. The Men’s World Record is held by Wilson Kiprotich of Kenya with a time of 2:03.23 set on September 29, 2013 (Source: IAAF).

Macrocycle – The largest division of a training year or season consisting of preparation, competition, and transition (USATF Coaching Education-Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000). The largest periodization division, typically composed of two or more mesocycles (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Maximal Heart Rate (MHR) – The actual maximum heart rate (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Maximum Heart Rate – See also maximal heart rate, often denoted as heart rate max (HRM).

Maximal Oxygen Uptake (VO2max)- The greatest amount of oxygen that can be utilized at the cellular level for the entire body (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Medium Run –Generally, a session with a relative distance or duration that ranges somewhere between what is considered a short run and a long run.

Meniscus – A fibrous cartilage pad between opposing surfaces in a joint (Martini/Nath 2009).

MesoCycle – A training period consisting of typically 4-6 microcycles (USATF Coaching Education-Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000). A division of a periodized program that lasts from several weeks to a few months (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Metabolism – The sum of all biochemical processes under way within the human body at any moment; includes anabolism and catabolism (Martini/Nath 20090.

Metatarsal Bone – One of five bones of the foot that articulate with the tarsal bones (proximally) and the phalanges (distally) (Martini/Nath 2009).

Microcycle – A group of training sessions typically over a 7-day period of time (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000). A division of a periodized program that lasts from one to four weeks and can include daily and weekly training variations (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Mile – The “mile” equates to a measured distance of 5,280 feet (1,760 yards or approximately 1,609 meters) and is considered one of the iconic distances within competitive track & field running events in the U.S. and Britain. The mile race is categorized as a middle distance event, requiring a combination of speed and endurance. The men’s outdoor World record of 3:43.13 was set in 1999 and is held by Hicham El Guerrouj of Morocco. The women’s outdoor World record of 4:12.56 was set in 1996 and is held by Russia’s Svetlana Masterkova (Source: IAAF).

Mode – The specific type of exercise or activity that will be performed during an exercise session (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Modeling – A training unit in which competition requirements are simulated (USATF Coaching Education-Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Motor Unit – A motor nerve and all the muscle fibers it innervates (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Mitochondria – Speciallized cellular organeeles where the reactions of aerobic metabolism occur (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Muscle – A contractile organ composed of muscle tissue, blood vessels, nerves, connective tissues, and lymphatic vessels (Martini/Nath 2009).

Muscle Recruitment – A means of varying skeletal muscle force involving a process that increases force through varying the number of motor units activated (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Overload – A training stress or intensity greater than what the participant is accustomed to.

Overreaching – An overtrained state lasting a brief period of time, perhaps just a few days, as distinguished from overtraining syndrome, which can last for an extended period of time. Unplanned overreaching should be considered a warning sign of full-fledged overtraining (Baechle/ Earle 2008).

Overstriding – A walking or running gait in which the foot hits too far in front of the body’s center of gravity, causing a braking effect (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Overtraining – A condition typically caused by extreme levels of training frequency, volume, intensity, or a combination of these variables without sufficient rest or recovery. The result of overtraining is termed the overtraining syndrome, or sometimes referred more simply as “Staleness”. An athlete can remain overtrained for an extended period of time and have difficulty recovering quickly, even with what may seem as sufficient rest, which appears especially prevalent when overtraining is associated with aerobic endurance training. (Baechle/ Earle 2008).

Oxidative system – The primary source of ATP at rest and during aerobic activities (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Oxygen debt – See excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC).

Oxygen deficit – The difference between the amount of oxygen required for exercise and the amount of oxygen actually consumed during exercise (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Sagittal plane – A vertical plane that divides the body into left and right portions (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Sarcopenia – Muscle loss due to aging (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Sciatic Nerve – A nerve innervating the postmedial portion of the thigh and leg

(Martini/Nath 2009).

Set – A group of repetitions that are performed consecutively (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Side Stitches – Side stitches are generally thought to be muscle spasms caused by the conflicting movement of internal organs and the diaphragm while running. If the the diaphragm moves up as the organs move down, pain and spasm can result from the strain placed on the intercostal (rib) muscles. Two-thirds of all stitches occur on the right side of the abdomen, with the theory being that the proximity and weight of the liver is a contributory factor. Other factors that may contribute to stitches include: breathing patterns, weight of a full stomach, lack of fitness, starting too fast, improper warm-up, running downhill, or on hard surfaces, and cold weather (AAF Cross Country Coaching Manual 2001).

Shin Splints – A generic, non-medical term for localized pain in the front of the lower leg (tibia). This pain is generally attributed to inflammation of the tendon of the tibialis posterior muscle or the soft tissue between the tibia and fibula (AAF Cross Country Coaching Manual 20010).

Single Periodization – An annual plan with one macrocycle (USATF Coaching Education-Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Size Principle – refers to the recruitment of larger and more motor units as a response to an increased force requirement (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Slow Twitch Fiber (ST) – A type of motor unit and muscle fiber type (Type I) that is recruited for aerobic activity (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)- The efferent division of the nervous system that innervates skeletal muscles (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Special Preparation – A phase of training with the objective of continued Phase foundational development, but with a trend toward special training (i.e. event-specific) (USATF Coaching Education-Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Specific Adaptation to Imposed Demands (SAID) – Is a phenomenon whereby our bodies adapt to exercise or physical stress in direct response to the nature of the demands imposed. This means that training needs to be address the specific requirements of the sport being trained for (AAF Cross Country Coaching Manual 2001).

Specific Warm-Up – A type of warm-up that involves performing movements that mimic the sport or activity, e.g. slow jogging before running (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Speed – The capacity to move the body or a body segment rapidly (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Speed Endurance – The ability to maintain running speed over an extended duration (Earle/Baechle 2004)

Speed strength – The application or development of maximum force at high velocities (Earle/Baechle 2004)

Speed Training – Usually accomplished with buildups, strides, and sprints.

Splits – A common term used in many forms of racing, usually denoting the time duration to traverse a segment of a race divided into a number of equal distance segments. For example a 1-mile race would be “split” into 4 quarters, 6-mile race would have (6) 1-mile splits, etc. useful for monitoring pace and staying on target for the race time goal.

Sprain – Injury to a ligament (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Sprints – Characterized as running at maximal speed over a short distance (e.g. 100m, 200m, and 400m), a predominantly anaerobic event distance (i.e. >90% anaerobic).

Steady-Pace – Training pace below the lactate threshold (see also steady state training) (AAF Cross Country Coaching Manual 2001).

Steady-State Training – Also referred to as steady-pace training, Training intensity characterized by a balance between the demands of the activity and aerobic energy production, where lactic acid does not accumulate in the muscles, allowing the activity to continue for an extended period of time (AAF Cross Country Coaching Manual 2001).

Steeple Chase – This event has its origins in Britain; runners would race from one town’s steeple to the next, jumping obstacles such as streams and low walls. The current event can be traced to the two-mile steeplechases run at Oxford University in the mid-19th century. It was made a track event, with barriers, at the 1879 English Championships. The current format has been contested by men – initially over varying distances – in every Olympic Games since 1900. The women’s event was introduced as recently as 2008. Runners make bunched standing starts and can break immediately for the inside. The number of laps depends on the position of the water jump – inside or outside the track’s second bend – but competitors must always clear 28 fixed barriers and seven water jumps during a race’s duration. The men’s barriers are 36in (91.4cm) high, the women’s 30in (76.2cm). The water jump’s landing area is 12ft (3.66m) long and 70cm at its deepest (source: IAAF).

Strain – Injury to a muscle (Earle/Baechle 2004)

Strength– The ability to apply force (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) – The series of three phases that explains the mechanical and neurophysiological reactions to a plyometric movement (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Stride Frequency – The number of steps per minute. Also referred to as cadence.

Stride length – The distance covered with each step.

Stride (Striders) – Short repeats of 80-150m done at faster speeds (usually between 5k and 1-mile pace) with plenty of recovery, usually done post-run (Magness 2014). Shorter strides 40-50m are sometimes used during pre-race or high intensity workouts.

Stride Rate – Refers to the number of strides (steps) taken per minute.

Super compensation – returning to a level of fitness beyond that of the original, following the fatigue resulting from training (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Supinatation – Refers to foot/ankle action occurring during the support phase of the gait cycle consisting of: plantar flexion, calcaneal inversion, and internal rotation (Martin/Coe 1997).

Supine – Lying down on the back, facing up.

Support Phase – Refers to the gait cycle, the support phase consists of three distinct periods: footstrike, midsupport, and takeoff (Martin/Coe 1997).

Surging – A surge is a planned and significant increase in pace at a predetermined location or point in a race, with the intent being to break away from the rest of the field by creating a gap that following runners are unwilling or unable to close. Once the gap is established, the surging runner settles back into their normal race pace.

Target heart rate range (THRR) – The minimum and maximum heart rates per unit of time that are assigned for an aerobic exercise bout (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Tempo Pace – The pace (aerobic threshold pace) utilized in a tempo or threshold run, commonly described as “comfortably hard”, is usually at or slightly above the lactate threshold.

Tempo Run – Tempo runs are also referred to as “threshold runs” which are performed at a pace that can be maintained for 15-35 minutes (at what is often described as a “comfortably hard” pace), putting the athlete at, or slightly above, the anaerobic or lactate threshold (AAF Cross Country Coaching Manual 2001).

Tendinitis – Inflammation of a tendon.

Threshold Run – Characterized as a type of training run designed to progressively increase running velocity at lactate threshold by training at paces at or slightly above lactate threshold. See also tempo training run (Anderson 2013).

Tidal volume – The amount of air moved during inhalation or exhalation with each breath (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Top Down Method – One of the classic Interval type workouts, where intervals of a specified distance were run at date pace and then progressively increased to goal race pace as the training period/phase progresses (Magness 2014).

Training – The process of acquiring fitness specific to an event (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Training age – The number of years spent in specialized training for an event (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Training Theory – The interpretation of relevant work that provides a systematic and scientific program to mesh with practical coaching experience (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Training ratio – The ratio between training and recovery (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Training session – The combination of several training units of a complimentary nature (typically called a workout) (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Training unit – The segment of a session that meets the objective of one training component/biomotor element (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Transition Period – The link between two macrocycles when the objective is restoration (USATF Coaching Education -Sports Sciences, Schexnayder 2000).

Training Zone – The purpose of a training zone is to elicit a specific physiological and metabolic adaptation in order to improve performance. These zones are typically correlated to different training intensities, physiological stressors, and muscle recruitment patterns which in turn relate closely with the energy system and substrate that is to be activated. Training zones are often used in programs that utilize heart rate or a power meter (cycling) as a means to establish the training zones (Millán 2014).

Turnover – The frequency of steps or strides taken while running, usually quantified as the number of strides per minute, see also cadence.

Type I Muscle Fiber – Slow-twitch muscle fibers are characteristically involved in energy production for prolonged aerobic activities, such as long distance running. They are described as fatigue resistant, as compared to fast twitch fibers, which fatigue easily. The slow-twitch fibers have a less developed sarcoplasmic reticulum, which relates to a slower level of calcium ion-handling capability and a low activity level of myosin ATPase; this in turn inhibits the speed of hydrolysis of ATP. In addition, the glucose and glycolytic control capacity is less developed than in fast-twitch fibers. However, Type I fibers contain a large number of mitochondria and mitochondrial enzymes, which enhances their aerobic metabolism capacity. Type I fibers are described as slow-oxidative or SO fibers, which refers to their high involvement in aerobic metabolism and their slower rate of shortening. The SO fibers also have a greater capacity for blood flow, a structural and functional adaptation resulting from their greater need for oxygen delivery (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Type II Muscle Fiber – Fast-twitch muscle fibers have the ability to generate rapid, powerful muscle actions, due to a number of metabolic factors such as a speedy level of calcium ion release, a high level of myosin ATPase, and a highly developed sarcoplasmic reticulum. The type II fibers speed of shortening is and force development is three to five times faster than that of slow-twitch fibers. In contrast to slow-twitch fibers, type II fibers use predominantly a blood glucose and muscle glycogen fuel source and thus are predominantly recruited in anaerobic type activities (Earle/Baechle 2004).

Type IIa Muscle Fiber – Fast twitch (Type II) muscle fibers can be further subdivided into two primary groups: Type IIa and Type IIb. Both Fast-twitch and slow-twitch muscle fibers can exist as “pure fibers” (i.e. containing only one type of myosin heavy chain) or as hybrids, containing multiple forms. The Type IIa fibers are considered intermediate fibers, having a moderate capacity for anaerobic and aerobic energy production. And are often referred to as “fast-oxidative-glycolytic“ or FOG fibers. The Type IIb muscle fibers exhibit the most extensive anaerobic potential and are commonly referred to as the fast-glycolytic or FG fibers (Earle/Baechle 2004).

USA Track & Field (USATF) – USA Track & Field (USATF) is the national governing body for the sports of track and field, cross country running, road running and racewalking in the United States. USATF was known for a number of years as The Athletics Congress (TAC) after its spin off from the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU), which governed the sport in the US since its founding in 1878 and through most of the 20th century until the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 dissolved its powers and responsibilities. USATF functions as a non-profit organization with a membership of nearly 100,000 and is based in Indianapolis, Minnesota. The organization is led by an elected President (Stephanie Hightower) and a full-time CEO (former NASCAR executive Max Siegel). USATF is involved in many aspects of the sport at the local, national, and international level’s providing the rules, officials, coaching education, sports science and athlete development, youth programs, masters (age 40+) competition, and the National Track & Field Hall of Fame. It also organizes the annual USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships, as well as the annual US Junior Olympics National Championships for Track and Field and Cross Country.

Unit – A single component of a training session (e.g. stretching, drills, weightlifting, plyos, running, etc.) (AAF Cross Country Coaching Manual 2001).

United States Olympic Committee (USOC) – Founded in 1894 and headquartered in Colorado Springs, Colo., the United States Olympic Committee serves as both the National Olympic Committee and National Paralympic Committee for the United States. As such, the USOC is responsible for the training, entering and funding of U.S. teams for the Olympic, Paralympic, Youth Olympic, Pan American and Parapan American Games, while serving as a steward of the Olympic Movement throughout the country. In addition to its international Games responsibilities and its work to advance the Olympic Movement, the USOC aids America’s Olympic and Paralympic athletes through their National Governing Bodies, providing financial support and jointly working to develop customized, creative and impactful athlete-support and coaching education programs. The USOC also supports U.S. Olympic and Paralympic athletes on and off the field of play through programming such as direct athlete funding, health insurance, tuition grants, media and marketing opportunities, career services and performance-based monetary rewards. In addition, the Olympic Training Center facilities provide athletes with performance services, including sports medicine; strength and conditioning; psychology, physiology and nutrition assistance; and performance technology. Additionally, the USOC oversees the process by which U.S. cities bid to host the Olympic/Paralympic Games, the Youth Olympic Games or the Pan/Parapan American Games, while also playing a supporting role in the bid processes for hosting a myriad of other international competitions. Further, the USOC approves the U.S. trials sites and procedures for the Olympic, Paralympic, Youth Olympic, Pan American and Parapan American Games team selections (teamusa.org 2014).

Ultra Marathon – Please see discussion on ultra running.

Ultra Running – Also referred to as ultra marathoning or ultra distance running, Ultra running can be characterized as distances in excess of 26.2 miles (marathon distance). That being said, the shortest official distance considered an ultra is the 50 kilometer distance (31.07 miles). Other standard distances include the 50-mile, 100-mile, 100km, and a series of events that last for a specified time period, e.g. 6-hour, 12-hour, 24-hour, 48-hour, and 6-days (ultrarunning.com 2014). The International Association of Ultra Runners (IAU) was officially recognized by the IAAF in 1988.  The IAAF recognizes the IAU as the governing body for the sport of ultra running around the world (IAAF).